Year of Sheep, Culture of Sheep
By Folklorist Jian Rongcong
Sheep, in human culture, are generally loved and respected. Not only have they maintained a long-standing relationship with humans, they have also made a great impact on folk customs, aesthetics, languages, ethics, art, and crafts. Sheep and mankind have relied upon each other. Sheep play an important role in spiritual culture as well as material culture. This is reflected by the fact that the sheep is one of the Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac.
The Siraya Pinpu people, an aboriginal tribe in southern Taiwan, worship the Ali God, a wooden ancestral pillar with two engraved horns, located in their ancestral temples. This two-horn ancestral pillar is believed to be a sheep totem. It is said that the Ali God, in white clothes, came from the Asian continent in ancient times and took refuge in Taiwan.
In Chinese history, sheep, after dogs, were the first to be domesticated among the six domestic animals. Human beings formed a deep relationship with sheep, which were first tamed about 10,000 years ago. Sheep totems were worshiped as early as the New Stone Age (10,000 – 2,000 BC).
The Qiang people, who are inhabit the areas west of the Yellow River and Yangtze River valleys, are an aboriginal tribe with sheep totems. Their head ornaments, shaped like sheep horns, are their part of their traditional garb. They are also called “sheep people” because both men and women wear totemic ornaments, as is evident in two archaic Chinese characters: 羌 for male and 姜 for female.
The earliest territory of the Qiang people was in what is now eastern Qinghai Province. They emigrated to various parts of the Yellow River Valley as early as several thousand years B.C. Then, from about 400 to 500 B.C., a large number of Qiang moved to the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, where they were transformed from a nomadic tribe to an agricultural people. This transformation led to the substitution of cow and horse totems with sheep totems. (see Xiqiang Zhuan.in Hou Hanshu, History of the Later Han Dynasty). In addition, tiger totems appeared among the ancient Qiang tribes who had traditionally carried sheep totems, reflecting the mutual influence of totems through the intermarriage of ancient Chinese tribes.
As can be seen from many Chinese historical records, sheep totems have had a great influence on Chinese culture. For example, the Fuxishi people, a tribe with tiger totems, adopted the sheep totems of the Qiang. The Bagua (Eight Diagrams) was created by Fuxi, a legendary Chinese ancestral figure, when he observed the Heavens and drew the divination symbols from one totem pillar with carved sheep horns. According to Si Maqian’s Shi-ji (Records of the Historian), “Fuxi was half-man and half-snake” - which suggests the integration of sheep and tiger totems with snake totems. Yandi and Huangdi, two legendary Chinese ancestors, also had connections with sheep totems. During the Shang and Zhou dynasties (1711 - 256 BC), tribes in the West and the East experienced widespread integration. This cultural integration of the ancient Chinese and Qiang tribes gave rise to the development of today’s Chinese culture.
A number of prehistoric rock paintings, totem pillars, utensils, festival activities, myths, legends, linguistic elements, and lyrics highlight the impact of totems.
· Sheep were the subject of carved designs in prehistoric rock paintings in Xinjiang, Menggu, Qinghai, Ningxia, and Gansu.
l Most of the funeral objects found in Xinjiang’s three-thousand-year-old graves were related to sheep. A body buried in one grave had some reddish black lines suggesting sheep horns on his face, affording proof of the use of totems as funeral objects.
l Rock paintings of the totem pillars with carved sheep and cow horns are still preserved in Inner Mongolia.
l In Yangshu pottery pieces, created during the New Stone Age, are realistic and imaginary animal designs, among which sheep were the main feature. The totems drawn on pottery by the primitive tribes were used to (1) represent their own totems and (2) to mark their places of origin. Moreover, crouching sheep pottery was discovered in other cultural ruins of the New Stone Age such as Henan’s Feiligang Relics, Hebei’s Cishan Relics and Zhejiang's Hemudu Relics.
l One of Qinghai’s traditions is the folk dance “ancient sheep song” where dancers put on hats shaped like sheep horns, wear sheep garments, have sheep-like make-up, and sing folk songs to express happiness, well-being and good luck. Regarded as the gods of sheep totems by the audience, the dancers are believed to be able to avert calamity and expel evil spirits. A similar dance is also found among the Miao tribes (in southwestern China). This dance is called Caogai, meaning “the ancestral gods of all tribes.”
l Rams with huge horns were worshipped as gods by the ancient natives in Qinghai. Likewise, huge-headed sheep, viewed as sacred in Tibet’s primitive religion (Bon) were said to enable highland barley to grow, and produce raw sheep milk as well as butter, which fulfilled the 360 devil spirits’ desire for good food so that they shouted “A-LA-LA” to convey happiness and satisfaction.
l Taiwan’s sheep-realted traditions embrace the cultures of the Han, Man, Meng, Hui, Tibetan, and Miao (Hmong) tribes.
In ancient Egyptian myths, Atum, the God of Creation, was depicted as a man with the head of a ram, Anubis, the God of Death, was described as a man with the head of a wolf, and Ra, the Sun God, was identified with the Sacred Sheep Amon.
In Greek myth, the embodiment of Zeus, the supreme ruler of the gods, was a sheep with two curved horns. Dryad, the Tree God, together with Dionysos, the Wine God, were goats or rams. Pan, the Shepherd God, as well as Satyr, the Forest God, were half-human, half-sheep.
In Chinese myths, sheep were the Gods of Five Grains. Five immortals during the era of Zhou King Yi (854 BC) were said to ride on sheep, holding lucky stalks of rice in their mouths. Arriving in Guangzhou, they gave the lucky stalks of rice to local people, wished them good harvests for generations, flew away, and turned the sheep into stone. A five-sheep monument was erected as a reminder at the Yuexioshan Park in Guangzhou. It has become the symbol of Guangzhou City.
Legends about the transformation of thousand-year-old spirits into green and white sheep appea in some ancient Chinese books such as Taiping Yulan (Imperial Readings of the Taiping Xingguo Era), Yudi Jishen, and Xuan Zhong Ji. Similarly, tales of sheep as tree spirits can be found in Greek and Roman myths (see Frazer’s The Golden Bough).
According to Chinese historical records, the Rain God turned into a sheep (see Taiping Guangji, Extensive Records of the Era Taiping), and Feilian, who could call for rain and wind, had sheep horns on his head (see Lidai Shensian Tongjian). Moreover, sun worship had a great impact on the Shennongshi tribes of the Yellow River Valley, bringing about the combination of sun and sheep worship. For the Shennongshi people, the Sheep God and the Sun God were the same. Likewise, in ancient Egyptian myths, the Goat God, the Sacred Sheep and the Sun God were used interchangeably. Furthermore, the Paiwan tribes in Taiwan think highly of sheep and worship the sun as well, which reflects the age-old origin of Chinese culture.
A great many myths and legends regarding sheep appear in Taiwan’s history. For instance, the embodiment of the Mountain God was believed to be a sheep. Legends about sheep as the Earth God were recorded in some ancient books (see Guoyu, the Discourses of the State, Guangya, Broadening the Refined, and Hanshi Waizhuan). Furthermore, tales of sheep turning into stone or stone turning into sheep have been circulated in many places. Nowadays, the Qiang people put one or several white stones on the top of their roofs to worship as the Guardian God.
In addition to setting up totem pillars with carved sheep horns, some Pingpu people in southern Taiwan place stones in front of the pillars or on altars for worshipping. For the Yamei tribes in Lanyu, sheep, the embodiment of the Mountain God, are allowed to roam freely in the mountains.
3. Sheep and Life Rites
Sheep are popular domestic animals that are raised in a number of countries. The so-called “six domestic animals” in traditional Chinese culture include horses, cows, sheep, chickens, dogs, and pigs. Dependence on sheep is so strong that rites regarding food, clothing, childbirth, marriage, funerals, recreations, and social activities are all connected to sheep. In ancient times, sheep were used to carry heavy goods, pull carriages and give children rides.
(1) Sheep and Food
The most prized meat among Old Stone Age (1.7 million to 10,000 B.C.) Chinese was wild horse or venison. Mutton became an important meat in the New Stone Age. Then in the eras of Xia and Shang (21st – 16th century B.C.), mutton, which was quite delicious when cooked, became the primary meat.
In Chinese characters, many words regarding tasty food include the character 羊 (sheep) as part of their structures, such as 美 (beautiful), 善 (nice), 羞 (tasty), 鮮 (fresh) and 羨 (mouth-watering). The word 饈, also written as羞, means “using sheep as a tribute.” Undoubtedly, food from sheep taken as a tribute must be delicious and tasty. Hence, the extended meaning of 饈 refers to all tasty food. The meaning of the word 鮮 is connected to a tasty fish dish in winter. The fish (魚) becomes more palatable when cooked with mutton and sheep butter. Third, the word 羨 describes mouth-watering mutton.
As shown in the historical documents of the ancient Zhou Dynasty (1,000 – 256 B.C.), Chinese food culture put high emphasis on delicacy, assortment, seasoning. Mutton, in particular, was considered the most delicious dish. The word 美 mentioned above is taken to highly praise the flavor of mutton. Dishes using to mutton have become diversified over thousands of years.
Taiwan is a melting pot for Chinese culture. Its mutton dishes, including Menggu roast mutton, Xinjiang roast mutton, Beijing instant-boiled mutton and various mutton hot pots, enjoy great popularity and draw attention from fine-food connoisseurs and tourists, both from Taiwan and abroad.
(2) Sheep and Clothing
The ancient Chinese were able to process sheepskin and make it into garments. When worshipping Heaven, the Zhou King wore a black lamb garment. The lamb garments, used as imperial costumes in the old days, were praised in Shijing, the Book of Poetry. Officials in lamb garments were depicted as having the virtues of lambs such as kindness, righteousness, bravery, and honesty.
Coats made from sheepskin were used to resist cold in autumn and winter. Since the Zhou Dynasty, the Chinese have woven sheep’s wool into cloth. Blankets, mainly made of wool, are age-old Chinese handcrafts and have been admired all over the world.
(3) Sheep and Transportation
According to ancient Chinese records, Xiongnu children rode on giant sheep as part of a hunting game. It was said that in Tibet, Princess Wencheng used white goats to carry rocks to rebuild Dazhao City. Today, Tibetans also use giant sheep to carry their goods. It is a magnificent spectacle when hundreds of lamas go forward with great strength and vigor to the meadows located in the farmlands of southern Tibet. In Taiwan, both the Han and aboriginal tribes rode giant sheep when tending them in wild mountains.
In the ancient Chinese courts, a game called ‘sheep carriages’ was used to entertain kings and queens by having sheep pull carriages. Those carriages decorated with lucky objects or lines were labeled as ‘sheep carriages’ because the word sheep means lucky in Chinese.
(4) Sheep and Life Rites
Sheep also play a prominent role in folk culture, involved in many rites including those of childbirth, marriage, funerals, and worship. Sheep are among the greatest sacrifice called Tailao, which contains cows, sheep and pigs. For the Chinese people, sheep are a symbol of kindness, propriety, righteousness, benevolence and filial piety, and bear a close relationship to many life rites. For example, the “Sacred Sheep Race” is regularly held in festival temple fairs held by Taiwan’s Haka tribes.
l Childbirth Rites: (1) Sheep are regarded as message of childbirth. (2) The hats, clothes, and shoes which grandmothers send to the newborn babies as gifts usually contain tiger shoes or sheep shoes. (3) Sheep as festival gifts often appear in children’s hair-cutting ceremonies. (4) A wool robe is put around the neck during the adult ceremony.
l Marriage Rites: Sheep and pigs as betrothal gifts are made to resemble Chinese unicorns during the engagement ceremony; a wedding banquet with a whole sheep is a symbol of solemnity, luck and perfection.
l Funeral Rites: (1) For the funerals of tribes with sheep totems, a large number of sheep are used for sacrifices, and objects such as jade or bronze sheep are buried together with the dead. (2) For some tribes, the younger generations present sheep during the funerals of the elder to express the filial devotion because lambs, kneeling to nurse, are considered to be filial symbols. (3) To indicate noble status, stone horses, tigers and sheep were arranged as pairs at the tombs of civil and military officials in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911 AD).
l Rites of Social Activities: People in ancient China used to carry ceremonial gifts called Zhi when visiting relatives or engaging in social activities. Ministers as well as literati and officials sent lambs with colored ribbon knots as Zhi. The common people gave sheep and wine as celebration gifs, a tradition which continues today.
4. Sheep and Entertainment
In the folk game “holding a sheep in mouth”, a tradition of Xinjiang’s Kazakh, Tajik, and Uighur tribes, the bravery and equestrian skills of horseback riders is showcased. In Shandong, there is a children’s game called “wolf-catch-sheep.” In the folk dance “sheep horn drum dance” of the Man and Han tribes, the dancers hold drums in their right hands and whips in their left hands, beating their drums, dancing and singing simultaneously. This dance is popular in Beijing, Gansu, Ningxia, and Shanxi.
In Taiwan’s Paiwan tribes, women usually tend goats in the open country after the harvest year festival, humming mountain songs to convey their contentment. In addition, Lanyu’s Yamei tribes make pottery idols for fun when they return home from fishing or when they cannot go to work during the typhoon season. Among the pottery idols are various puppets, chickens, sheep, cows, pigs, dogs and utensils.
5. Sheep, Art and Crafts
Sheep are publicly recognized as a symbol of luck in traditional Chinese culture. In archaic characters, 羊 (sheep) was used interchangeably with 祥 (lucky). 大吉祥 (great luck) were also written as 大吉羊 (giant lucky sheep) on many ancient craftworks such as the inscriptions on Han Tongxi (copper washbasins), Han Yuan Jia Dao Ming (inscriptions on swords), Han Wadang (roof tiles), and ancient bronzes and stone tablets.
The appearances of sheep in ancient Chinese crafts and objects are too numerous to mention. Sheep designs can be seen in primitive rock paintings and colored pottery, bronze ware and embroidered jade ware of the Shang Dynasty, and stone ware, ivory carving, wood carving, metal ware, lamps, lacquer painting, decoupage, engraving, drawing and ceramics. All of Taiwan’s tribes regard sheep as representative of luck, kindness, fineness, righteousness, benevolence, propriety, filial piety, tenderness, and brightness.
Conclusion
Discussing sheep culture during the year of sheep fills my mind with peace, kindness, and luck. In conclusion, I would like to express my wishes for the Year of the Sheep:
I wish everyone an auspicious beginning.
I wish the world peace and luck.